Environmental policies
Ecuador is known to be a country that prioritizes implementing legislation which protects the environment. It's Constitution guarantees the right to live in an ecologically balanced environment which is void of contamination. This is so crucial because it relates to the well being of the environment to the quality of life of individuals. Since Ecuador had dealt with economic crises in the last two decades, the government has been very proactive in trying to preserve the environment as well as pass legislation to balance the environment and the economy. In order to be able to better preserve the environment, legislation will not be enough; financial and technological assistance are imperative for the preservation of the environment. Ecuador has been making very critical legislature and approving documents which has helped in the effort to preserve the environment.
In the year 1993, Ecuador had approved the “Basic Environmental Principles” which was a document that established an Executive Decree in the following year. These would outline the obligations of each citizen in order to preserve the environment. Later in 1996, the Ministry of Environment was created in order to coordinate the environmental policies, programs, and projects. In 1999, the Law of Environmental Management had established the principles and guidelines of environmental policies and who was responsible for upholding them. It also promotes waste management and other sustainable practices. In the same year, the Ecuadorian government also approved a law which limited agricultural activity as well as immigration into the Galapagos Islands, monitoring the introduction of alien species, and promoting the wellbeing of local inhabitants and endemic species.
In the year 1993, Ecuador had approved the “Basic Environmental Principles” which was a document that established an Executive Decree in the following year. These would outline the obligations of each citizen in order to preserve the environment. Later in 1996, the Ministry of Environment was created in order to coordinate the environmental policies, programs, and projects. In 1999, the Law of Environmental Management had established the principles and guidelines of environmental policies and who was responsible for upholding them. It also promotes waste management and other sustainable practices. In the same year, the Ecuadorian government also approved a law which limited agricultural activity as well as immigration into the Galapagos Islands, monitoring the introduction of alien species, and promoting the wellbeing of local inhabitants and endemic species.
Figure 1: An elevated image of Quito, Ecuador with The Virgin of Quito on the Panecillo hill.
Ecuador political-economic situation
The population of Ecuador consists of approximately 13.8 million individuals. Of the 13.8 million individuals, about 40% of Ecuadorians live in poverty and another 13% live in extreme poverty.
After multiple border conflicts with Brazil, Colombia, and Peru, Ecuador had lost about 60% of its total land area. Since Ecuador is nestled between Colombia and Peru, two of the major drug producing countries, the country is more strategically important to the United States.
The governing bodies of Ecuador have been a topic of concern. The last three popularly elected presidents of Ecuador did not finish their terms in office. Abdala Bucaram in 1997 was removed from office because he was deemed mentally unfit and he was accused of misappropriating about $90 million in public funds. Three years later, Jamil Mahuad was ousted by a coup after an economic crisis that lasted for many years. After Mahuad, Colonel Lucio Gutierrez took office in 2005. Months later, he was removed from office because of prolonged popular protests that took place due to the displeasure about his attempt to flood the courts.
On April 15, 2007, Ecuadorians approved a referendum in order to convene a constituent assembly which would have the power to rewrite the country’s constitution and dismiss people in authoritative elected positions if they saw fit. The first three months that the assembly was active, they had acted to mandate passing legislation. Later on, they worked on constitutional debated in that March. Some of the other debates that the assembly discussed were whether or not to reform constitutional clauses relating to abortion, religion, and gay rights.
On March 1, 2008, the Colombian military bombed a terrorist site in Ecuador which killed more than 25 people. This bombing was not approved of, and it took out at least one of Ecuador’s civilians. President Correa responded to this incident by breaking diplomatic ties with Colombia as well as sending additional troops to the border. President Chavez of Venezuela also broke ties with Colombia in solidarity with Ecuador. After a Rio Group Summit took place in the Dominican Republic on March 7, there was a lot of tension between all three countries which made many people believe that there would be military conflict. President Uribe of Colombia had publicly apologized for the situation and made a promise that it would not happen again. The president of Colombia seemed to accept this apology and called for an end to the crisis, but President Correa held this incident close at heart although he acknowledged the apology that was given.
It is known that the United States is the largest bilateral donor to Ecuador. One of the main goals for the United State’s assistance to Ecuador was to promote democracy as well as reducing poverty, protecting the environment, and securing its border with Colombia.
After multiple border conflicts with Brazil, Colombia, and Peru, Ecuador had lost about 60% of its total land area. Since Ecuador is nestled between Colombia and Peru, two of the major drug producing countries, the country is more strategically important to the United States.
The governing bodies of Ecuador have been a topic of concern. The last three popularly elected presidents of Ecuador did not finish their terms in office. Abdala Bucaram in 1997 was removed from office because he was deemed mentally unfit and he was accused of misappropriating about $90 million in public funds. Three years later, Jamil Mahuad was ousted by a coup after an economic crisis that lasted for many years. After Mahuad, Colonel Lucio Gutierrez took office in 2005. Months later, he was removed from office because of prolonged popular protests that took place due to the displeasure about his attempt to flood the courts.
On April 15, 2007, Ecuadorians approved a referendum in order to convene a constituent assembly which would have the power to rewrite the country’s constitution and dismiss people in authoritative elected positions if they saw fit. The first three months that the assembly was active, they had acted to mandate passing legislation. Later on, they worked on constitutional debated in that March. Some of the other debates that the assembly discussed were whether or not to reform constitutional clauses relating to abortion, religion, and gay rights.
On March 1, 2008, the Colombian military bombed a terrorist site in Ecuador which killed more than 25 people. This bombing was not approved of, and it took out at least one of Ecuador’s civilians. President Correa responded to this incident by breaking diplomatic ties with Colombia as well as sending additional troops to the border. President Chavez of Venezuela also broke ties with Colombia in solidarity with Ecuador. After a Rio Group Summit took place in the Dominican Republic on March 7, there was a lot of tension between all three countries which made many people believe that there would be military conflict. President Uribe of Colombia had publicly apologized for the situation and made a promise that it would not happen again. The president of Colombia seemed to accept this apology and called for an end to the crisis, but President Correa held this incident close at heart although he acknowledged the apology that was given.
It is known that the United States is the largest bilateral donor to Ecuador. One of the main goals for the United State’s assistance to Ecuador was to promote democracy as well as reducing poverty, protecting the environment, and securing its border with Colombia.
Figure 2: An image taken in Quito, Ecuador of a street corner of a poverty stricken area.
Quito bus system
Quito’s bus system is a very organized industry. There are three main bus systems that are in operation. These three bus systems operate in Quito and are the “Populars,” “Especials,” and “Escolars.” Populars operate at a low service rate so that they are more attractive to consumers. Especials provide upgraded urban service. Escolars are for school services.
There is a Trolebus System which operates on the concept of a paid area. This concept works so that passengers pay a flat rate to use the truck-and-feeder system. This means that they only pay a fee when they transfer lines rather than each stop. Since these trolley buses are electric, the emissions that would be released are reduced. The standard fee for these buses as of 2003 is a quarter, or twenty-five cents. Another bus system is the Ecovía System which was designed as a project to be operated by private entities. Some of the positive attributes of this bus system is that they are able to fit many passengers and are fairly energy efficient.
Overall, the bus system in the city over the years have adapted to follow a specific way of running their businesses. I think that it is beneficial for a major mode of transportation to be energy efficient or have reduced emissions, so it is good to see that the passion for conserving the environment has also transcended to their bus systems.
There is a Trolebus System which operates on the concept of a paid area. This concept works so that passengers pay a flat rate to use the truck-and-feeder system. This means that they only pay a fee when they transfer lines rather than each stop. Since these trolley buses are electric, the emissions that would be released are reduced. The standard fee for these buses as of 2003 is a quarter, or twenty-five cents. Another bus system is the Ecovía System which was designed as a project to be operated by private entities. Some of the positive attributes of this bus system is that they are able to fit many passengers and are fairly energy efficient.
Overall, the bus system in the city over the years have adapted to follow a specific way of running their businesses. I think that it is beneficial for a major mode of transportation to be energy efficient or have reduced emissions, so it is good to see that the passion for conserving the environment has also transcended to their bus systems.
Figure 2: An image of a bus in a busy street in Ecuador.
Rainfall predictability
The rain in Ecuador is crucial to the functioning of the ecosystem. The rainfall that Ecuador experiences between December and April account for the majority of the annual total which is crucial to agricultural and water management. Each region of Ecuador has different rainy seasons. For example, the coastal areas and the islands have a rainy season that lasts from April to May, whereas in the Amazon it rains throughout the year.
A study was conducted in order to observe the precipitation that occurred in Ecuador. Using Canonical Correlation Analysis, researchers are able to examine the strongest rainfall predictor patterns. In all of the designs, the El Niño Southern Oscillation played a large role in creating skillful predictions of precipitation, especially in the coastal regions.
With such models and technology, predicting rainfall would be very beneficial in many aspects. On one hand, it benefits agriculture because a farmer will be more knowledgeable about which crops will grow in a season. It will conversely need more water management and related infrastructure to deal, but with prior knowledge it will allow for time to make an action plan.
A study was conducted in order to observe the precipitation that occurred in Ecuador. Using Canonical Correlation Analysis, researchers are able to examine the strongest rainfall predictor patterns. In all of the designs, the El Niño Southern Oscillation played a large role in creating skillful predictions of precipitation, especially in the coastal regions.
With such models and technology, predicting rainfall would be very beneficial in many aspects. On one hand, it benefits agriculture because a farmer will be more knowledgeable about which crops will grow in a season. It will conversely need more water management and related infrastructure to deal, but with prior knowledge it will allow for time to make an action plan.
Figure 4: An image of a rainy hut that is located in Ecuador.
Quito
There was first known people living in Ecuador back in 10,000 BC on the Pacific coast and the Andes. These indigenous settlements experiences significant population growth and made many great strides with the process of settling. For example, they developed new crops and complex organizational, technological and cultural patterns.
In the early 16th century, the Spaniards arrived to the area. There, they were able to see two main political centers which were Quito and Cuzco. During this colonial period, practices such as mining, textile manufacturing, and agriculture were performed by the indigenous labor force. Many years later in 1830, Ecuador had gained its independence from Spain and became an independent republic. With this movement, social, economic, and political changes came about.
The article talked about three types of slums that could be found in Quito. The one slum is barrios periféricos which was popular neighborhoods which were located at the urban edge of the city. Another slum is the conventillos which were deteriorated tenements of the historic center. Finally, there were rural neighborhoods that housed low-income families who commuted to the city for work. The majority of low-income households lived in the barrios periféricos slums. I think that it was interesting that the author of the article was able to break down slums into these three categories.
In the early 16th century, the Spaniards arrived to the area. There, they were able to see two main political centers which were Quito and Cuzco. During this colonial period, practices such as mining, textile manufacturing, and agriculture were performed by the indigenous labor force. Many years later in 1830, Ecuador had gained its independence from Spain and became an independent republic. With this movement, social, economic, and political changes came about.
The article talked about three types of slums that could be found in Quito. The one slum is barrios periféricos which was popular neighborhoods which were located at the urban edge of the city. Another slum is the conventillos which were deteriorated tenements of the historic center. Finally, there were rural neighborhoods that housed low-income families who commuted to the city for work. The majority of low-income households lived in the barrios periféricos slums. I think that it was interesting that the author of the article was able to break down slums into these three categories.
Figure 5: An image of a slum that could be found in Quito, Ecuador.
Environmental ethics
Research suggests that individuals in managerial positions from the United States and Ecuador are less ethical when faced with environmental issues in the circumstance that their personal economic well being is at risk. The only difference between these two groups would be that Ecuadorians are more favorable towards the environment. The article discusses how T. Jones came up with the concept of “moral intensity” which theorizes that it has a “significant effect on ethical decision making and behavior at all stages of the process and if empirical support is developed, then all previous models would be affected.”
The results from a study that was done found two main things. The first thing of substantial is that the United States and Ecuador were both significantly more ethical in their responses to the question about enhancement of firm profitability compared to the second question about personal economic well being. This then supports the main hypothesis of the study that was described above. The second thing that was important was that the Ecuadorian group was more ethical on all four of the questions which implies that the managers tend to view the given ethical situations with a slightly more moral perspective.
The results from a study that was done found two main things. The first thing of substantial is that the United States and Ecuador were both significantly more ethical in their responses to the question about enhancement of firm profitability compared to the second question about personal economic well being. This then supports the main hypothesis of the study that was described above. The second thing that was important was that the Ecuadorian group was more ethical on all four of the questions which implies that the managers tend to view the given ethical situations with a slightly more moral perspective.
Figure 6: An image of a sign depicting the two sides of ethical reasoning - right and wrong.
Drinking water shortage
In 2002, a total of 1.1 billion people do not have access to safe drinking water. This lack of clean water causes over 6,500 children to perish each day from the contaminated water. In smaller communities in developing countries, little sanitation infrastructure exists. A study was performed to test if storing water in a household would lead to a deterioration of water quality due to the recontamination in the home. This study took place in Ecuador in the province of Esmeraldas, Canton Eloy Alfaro, as well as in five smaller villages along the Santiago, Cayapas, and Onzole rivers. From the surveys that were conducted, it was found that about 60% of people dispose human waste out in the open by digging a hole or directly into the river. The same river is the primary water source for about 70% of households in which 60% of these households do not treat this water before consumption or usage. This then makes a lot of the individuals in these households sick.
Water treatment is an important explanatory variable in this study. It was found that boiling and chlorinating water significantly decreased the amount of indicator organisms. The container type that the water was stored in the household seemed to have an effect for the presence of E. coli. Overall, the article suggests that when the initial source of water quality is poor, in-home water treatment and safe water storage need to be implemented.
Water treatment is an important explanatory variable in this study. It was found that boiling and chlorinating water significantly decreased the amount of indicator organisms. The container type that the water was stored in the household seemed to have an effect for the presence of E. coli. Overall, the article suggests that when the initial source of water quality is poor, in-home water treatment and safe water storage need to be implemented.
Figure 7: An image of an indigenous community struggling to gather water during a water shortage.
Greenwater concessions
In order to generate clean energy, people have turned to dams. The Ecuadorian water authority signed a petition in 2003 in which Hidrotambo had called for a license to utilize a river’s flow of water. On one hand, this would allow for cleaner energy. On the other hand, dams are known for obstructing infrastructure as well as it would remove the rights of thousands of local water users.
As this project progressed, the leaders of the affected communities charged that the government agencies were failing to enforce their rights to water. This was a problem because the rights to water was outlined in the 1972 Water Law when it stated that human consumption took priority over other claims to water which in this case was for dams. From a legal stance, the communities believed that Hidrotambo’s concession had basis.
Eventually, there was an open conflict between the residents of Ecuador and those who supported Hidrotambo. Since residents were rejecting bribes, they banded together to revolt against Hidrotambo. From the communities that were impacted by Hidrotambo, farmers began to practice non-violent resistance which ultimately ended when soldiers harassed and repressed the farmers.
President Correa had spoken about the issue prior to being elected into presidency by saying:
“I just want to say to you all one final thing about this Hidrotambo issue. About the problem of water concessions...We believe, ladies and gentlemen, that those who should approve these kinds of projects are you, the affected communities. Because it is you who have the right to approve a hydroelectric plant, on your land, affecting your environment. If you say no to this project, the project will not be built!”
However, when he was elected into the position, he did not follow through with his word.
The dams that were put in place we marketed to investors in the global carbon market that this was a clean, green solution to energy needs and development, but in reality this was not the whole story. The dams benefited a specific group of people who had more power, and substantially hurt those who did not have a voice to the government. If projects like this are avoided in the future in Latin America, and more specifically Ecuador, it would reduce the conflict between small communities and the governing representatives.
As this project progressed, the leaders of the affected communities charged that the government agencies were failing to enforce their rights to water. This was a problem because the rights to water was outlined in the 1972 Water Law when it stated that human consumption took priority over other claims to water which in this case was for dams. From a legal stance, the communities believed that Hidrotambo’s concession had basis.
Eventually, there was an open conflict between the residents of Ecuador and those who supported Hidrotambo. Since residents were rejecting bribes, they banded together to revolt against Hidrotambo. From the communities that were impacted by Hidrotambo, farmers began to practice non-violent resistance which ultimately ended when soldiers harassed and repressed the farmers.
President Correa had spoken about the issue prior to being elected into presidency by saying:
“I just want to say to you all one final thing about this Hidrotambo issue. About the problem of water concessions...We believe, ladies and gentlemen, that those who should approve these kinds of projects are you, the affected communities. Because it is you who have the right to approve a hydroelectric plant, on your land, affecting your environment. If you say no to this project, the project will not be built!”
However, when he was elected into the position, he did not follow through with his word.
The dams that were put in place we marketed to investors in the global carbon market that this was a clean, green solution to energy needs and development, but in reality this was not the whole story. The dams benefited a specific group of people who had more power, and substantially hurt those who did not have a voice to the government. If projects like this are avoided in the future in Latin America, and more specifically Ecuador, it would reduce the conflict between small communities and the governing representatives.
Figure 8: An image of the Grand Coulee Dam which shows the different mechanisms which go into generating hydroelectricity.
Cotopaxi
Cotopaxi is one of Ecuador’s most active volcanoes. Since the 16th century, this volcano has erupted more than 50 times. The last known eruption of this volcano was in August of 2016. This volcano is classified as a stratovolcano which has an elevation of 19393 feet. The activity of this volcano is very important to the surrounding ecosystem. The soil surrounding the volcano is very rich in nutrients because of the volcanic ash. In addition, the water nearby is purer because of volcanic rock filtration. In 1877, the volcano erupted and melted the snow and ice on its summit. This, in turn, produced mudflows that traveled as much as 60 miles from its origin.
Overall, I think that it is very interesting the different roles that volcanoes can play in a community. From its tourist appeal to its aid to the environment, volcanoes really are something different.
Overall, I think that it is very interesting the different roles that volcanoes can play in a community. From its tourist appeal to its aid to the environment, volcanoes really are something different.
Figure 9: An image of Cotopaxi.
Cloud forests
Cloud forests are known to be rich in biomass. With all of its vegetation and diversity among its vegetation, it is easy to see why it would have such high biomass. The video discussed how it has predominantly one story of trees and cloud forests make up 1% of the woodlands. Cloud forests could be found in mountainous areas in the tropics. The vegetation in these areas get more dense and smaller the higher the elevation gets. This is due to the fact that the light levels drop with the presence of clouds, so the plants get less energy to live. The vegetation has been known to have some special characteristics. For example, some branches are known to curl and twist.
The video explains that the cloud forests in the world can take on different appearances. The factors that contribute to the cloud forests’ appearance and form are the altitude, temperature, soil quality, cloud coverage, and exposure to winds. The video lists several cloud forests that can be found, such as Mindo, Ecuador and other locations in Brazil and other areas.
There are many things that are threatening cloud forests. One of the main issues is man itself. People come into the forests and damage them as well as over harvest its resources. An example of this would be the immense logging that occurs in cloud forests. Another main conflict to cloud forests would be infrastructural development which would implement roads and pipelines in the areas of the cloud forests. The video also talks about how some invasive species can impact the ecosystem of cloud forests. The wild orange trees can be found in cloud forests which both serve and damages the ecosystem in a complex relationship. The video noted that climate change will cause these cloud forests to become extinct in the following years.
The video explains that the cloud forests in the world can take on different appearances. The factors that contribute to the cloud forests’ appearance and form are the altitude, temperature, soil quality, cloud coverage, and exposure to winds. The video lists several cloud forests that can be found, such as Mindo, Ecuador and other locations in Brazil and other areas.
There are many things that are threatening cloud forests. One of the main issues is man itself. People come into the forests and damage them as well as over harvest its resources. An example of this would be the immense logging that occurs in cloud forests. Another main conflict to cloud forests would be infrastructural development which would implement roads and pipelines in the areas of the cloud forests. The video also talks about how some invasive species can impact the ecosystem of cloud forests. The wild orange trees can be found in cloud forests which both serve and damages the ecosystem in a complex relationship. The video noted that climate change will cause these cloud forests to become extinct in the following years.
Figure 10: An image of a cloud forest.
Living in an area with natural disasters
Since Ecuador is positioned in an area with increased levels of seismic activity, the citizens of this country need to be prepared in the event of natural disasters such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tsunamis. In order to combat the major threats of tsunamis, there is a network of sirens in Esmeraldas and Manabi provinces which will alert the citizens if there is an incoming tsunami.
Volcanoes are very impactful to the lives of Ecuadorians. From volcanoes, the ash fall is known to disrupt national and international flights as well as pose as health hazards. Around glaciated volcanoes, such as Cotopaxi, there is a high risk of lahars. Lahars are flows of water, mud, lava, and debris which are known to be destructive, leaving the towns of Latacunga and Salcedo extremely vulnerable. Some problems that the citizens surrounding these volcanoes might be that they get burned by the lava, hit with flying rocks, suffocated by the volcanic ash, met with debris flow, and get sick from the volcanic gas.
Other natural events that impact Ecuadorians are the rainy season as well as forest fires. Ecuador’s rainy season falls between December and May. El Nino is a climate phenomenon that particularly impacts the Ecuadorians due to the fact that landslides are more likely to happen with an increased level of precipitation. When an individual travels through the Andes, they can see the lasting impacts that landslides have had on them. Landslides are particularly dangerous when the soil is both wet and heavy. These factors combined with an increase in seismic activity make a goldilocks situation for landslides. It is noted that during this time, people should avoid crossing rivers because of the strong currents that will occur and monitor tidal activity. Forest fires occur all over Ecuador but they happen especially in the Pichincha province due to the fact that the area has high temperatures as well as strong winds, little rain, and people who light fires.
Volcanoes are very impactful to the lives of Ecuadorians. From volcanoes, the ash fall is known to disrupt national and international flights as well as pose as health hazards. Around glaciated volcanoes, such as Cotopaxi, there is a high risk of lahars. Lahars are flows of water, mud, lava, and debris which are known to be destructive, leaving the towns of Latacunga and Salcedo extremely vulnerable. Some problems that the citizens surrounding these volcanoes might be that they get burned by the lava, hit with flying rocks, suffocated by the volcanic ash, met with debris flow, and get sick from the volcanic gas.
Other natural events that impact Ecuadorians are the rainy season as well as forest fires. Ecuador’s rainy season falls between December and May. El Nino is a climate phenomenon that particularly impacts the Ecuadorians due to the fact that landslides are more likely to happen with an increased level of precipitation. When an individual travels through the Andes, they can see the lasting impacts that landslides have had on them. Landslides are particularly dangerous when the soil is both wet and heavy. These factors combined with an increase in seismic activity make a goldilocks situation for landslides. It is noted that during this time, people should avoid crossing rivers because of the strong currents that will occur and monitor tidal activity. Forest fires occur all over Ecuador but they happen especially in the Pichincha province due to the fact that the area has high temperatures as well as strong winds, little rain, and people who light fires.
Figure 11: An image of Cotopaxi and the mountainous area around it.
Water pulse
This video outlined the increased need to prioritize the reduction of water usage as well as the need to determine how much water everyone is entitled to. Since we are not able to survive without water, the narrator of the video explains that we need to value it more. Latin American countries have begun to speak out against privatizing water. Some groups in Latin America sell water at the price of a dollar a gallon. Many families buy one gallon of water a day, so that they spend on average $30 a month. The video also explains that there is no substitute for water unlike other resources and that people should reduce their usage of water since there is a limited supply.
Figure 12: An image of a woman cleaning with contaminated water from a local water source.
Resources
Carrion, Diego, and Jaime Vasconez. “The Case of Quito, Ecuador.”
Commonwealth Office. “Natural Disasters - Ecuador Travel Advice.” GOV.UK, GOV.UK, 29 Oct. 2019, www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/ecuador/natural-disasters.
Conrad, Rachel. “How Greenwater Concessions Are Failing Ecuador.” NACLA - Report on the Americas, vol. 47, 2015.
“Dangers Of Living In Ecuador?” Ecuador Abroad, ecuadorabroad.com/dangers-of-living-in-ecuador/.
Ecuadormycountry, director. Ecuador. Volcanoes (English Language). Youtube, 2013, www.youtube.com/watch?v=pUx5HVhY730&feature=youtu.be.
Flores, Fernando. “ECUADOR’S ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES.” Earth Island Journal, vol. 16, 2001.
“Global Volcanism Program: Cotopaxi.” Global Volcanism Program | Cotopaxi, Smithsonian Institution National Museum of History, volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=352050.
Levy, Karen, et al. “Following the Water: A Controlled Study of Drinking Water Storage in Northern Coastal Ecuador.” Environmental Health Perspectives, vol. 116, 2008.
Link TV, director. Latin Pulse - Water Crisis. Youtube, 2008, www.youtube.com/watch?v=dhojFHnfA8E.
NIHERST Trinidad and Tobago, director. Natural Wonders of the Caribbean 2 (2012) - Cloud Forests. Youtube, 2012, www.youtube.com/watch?v=NYEilIbX6OQ&feature=youtu.be.
“QUITO BUSWAYS, ECUADOR.”
RECALDE-CORONEL, G. CRISTINA, et al. “Predictability of December–April Rainfall in Coastal and Andean Ecuador.” American Meteorological Society, 2014, doi:10.1175/JAMC-D-13-0133.1.
RECFILMS Ecuador, director. Making of Cotopaxi Volcano Documentary. Youtube, 2013, www.youtube.com/watch?v=EmWZpL-l6zc&feature=youtu.be.
Robertson, Christopher J, et al. “Environmental Ethics across Borders: The United States versus Ecuador .” Springer, vol. 39, 1999.
Seelke, Clare Ribando. “Ecuador: Political and Economic Situation and U.S. Relations.” Congressional Research Service, 2008.
“Volcano World.” Cotopaxi | Volcano World | Oregon State University, Oregon State University, volcano.oregonstate.edu/cotopaxi.
Commonwealth Office. “Natural Disasters - Ecuador Travel Advice.” GOV.UK, GOV.UK, 29 Oct. 2019, www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/ecuador/natural-disasters.
Conrad, Rachel. “How Greenwater Concessions Are Failing Ecuador.” NACLA - Report on the Americas, vol. 47, 2015.
“Dangers Of Living In Ecuador?” Ecuador Abroad, ecuadorabroad.com/dangers-of-living-in-ecuador/.
Ecuadormycountry, director. Ecuador. Volcanoes (English Language). Youtube, 2013, www.youtube.com/watch?v=pUx5HVhY730&feature=youtu.be.
Flores, Fernando. “ECUADOR’S ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES.” Earth Island Journal, vol. 16, 2001.
“Global Volcanism Program: Cotopaxi.” Global Volcanism Program | Cotopaxi, Smithsonian Institution National Museum of History, volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=352050.
Levy, Karen, et al. “Following the Water: A Controlled Study of Drinking Water Storage in Northern Coastal Ecuador.” Environmental Health Perspectives, vol. 116, 2008.
Link TV, director. Latin Pulse - Water Crisis. Youtube, 2008, www.youtube.com/watch?v=dhojFHnfA8E.
NIHERST Trinidad and Tobago, director. Natural Wonders of the Caribbean 2 (2012) - Cloud Forests. Youtube, 2012, www.youtube.com/watch?v=NYEilIbX6OQ&feature=youtu.be.
“QUITO BUSWAYS, ECUADOR.”
RECALDE-CORONEL, G. CRISTINA, et al. “Predictability of December–April Rainfall in Coastal and Andean Ecuador.” American Meteorological Society, 2014, doi:10.1175/JAMC-D-13-0133.1.
RECFILMS Ecuador, director. Making of Cotopaxi Volcano Documentary. Youtube, 2013, www.youtube.com/watch?v=EmWZpL-l6zc&feature=youtu.be.
Robertson, Christopher J, et al. “Environmental Ethics across Borders: The United States versus Ecuador .” Springer, vol. 39, 1999.
Seelke, Clare Ribando. “Ecuador: Political and Economic Situation and U.S. Relations.” Congressional Research Service, 2008.
“Volcano World.” Cotopaxi | Volcano World | Oregon State University, Oregon State University, volcano.oregonstate.edu/cotopaxi.